Organizational Design

[Arren]

What are the advantages and limitations of using a task force in organisational diagnosis

[Pasquale]

4.Discuss naire and Task Force as diagnostic methods and their advantages and limitations.

Organizational diagnosis is anexercise attempted to make ananalysis of organization.And analysis of its structure, subsystems and processes in order toidentify the strengths andweaknesses of its structuralcomponents and processes and useit as a basic for developing plans toimprove and /or maximize thedynamism and effectiveness of theorganization. Organizational Analysis:

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Analyzing the organization in terms of its components and their functioningis the first step in a comprehensivediagnosis.

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In addition the various processes thatcontribute to the effective functioningof the organization as a whole needto be examined.

The development of a strategy for systematic improvement of anorganization demands anexamination of present state of things. Such an analysis usually looksat two broad areas.

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One is diagnosis of varioussubsystems.

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second area is the organizationalprocesses that are occurring;

focus

Thus organizational analysis mayeither focus on the

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Structural aspects(sub systems,various components etc.) or ?

Processes.

List of Organizational Subsystems:

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Various levels in organization

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Geographic units

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Functional Background based subsystem.

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Experience and education basedsubsystems

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Division based subsystems

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Personnel and HRD policies

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Research and development

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Stake holders and their contribution

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Financial Management

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Marketing Management

Organizational Analysis perspective

Organizations can be analyzed withdifferent perspectives in the mind.The perspectives depend on

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The purpose for which the analysis isbeing done

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And the profession background of thepeople doing organizational analysis

Perspectives could used for analyzing organizations:

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Economics Perspective

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Political Science Perspective

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Sociology and social PsychologyPerspective

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Applied behavioral Science or ODperspective.

Economic Analysis of Organizations:

This primarily focuses on the use of money, allocation of resources, distributionand consumption patterns, pricingdecisions etc.Sample questions asked for Economicanalysis of an Organization:

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How are the resources allocated?

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What is the market structure?

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What is the organization’s market and itscharacteristics?

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Are the products and services in the industryhomogeneous or differentiated?

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What is the nature of demand for organization’sservices?

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What is the cost of making the product or services?

Advantage:

Economic analysis of organizations isalso helpful in

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streamlining the organizationalefficiency,

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eliminating wastes and

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gives insight while planning for growth, diversification etc.

Political analysis

Political analysis deals with the tactics andstrategies employed by the individuals andgroups in the organization as well asorganization itself in the quest of power.

Sample questions:

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Who is most influential in the organization?

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What is the power base of each categories of people in the organization?

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How is the power distributed among individuals,groups, and departments? What strategies dopeople use in influencing or controlling eachother?

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How is power used? How much for organizationalpurposes and for expanding one’s power base?

Political analysis is useful for understanding the organizations,many softer and strategic dimensionsof an organization.However it has limitations inproviding guidelines for the planningof growth and diversification of anorganization.

Sociological and social Psychologybased analysis:Sociological and social Psychologicalperspective focuses on the socialbehavior of individuals and groups inthe organization.The formation of groups, habits,norms and values of organization, theprocess of socialization, conflicts,strikes, protest behavior etc. theseissues are studied.The influence of the society on theorganization is also focused.

QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire can help you collect information about what people do, what they have, and what

they think, know, feel or want.

Five different types of information may be distinguished. Any one or a combination of these types

of information may be included in a questionnaire.

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1.KNOWLEDGE - what people know; how well they understand something.

These questions ask what people know, are aware of, understand. Choices implied in knowledge

questions include correct/incorrect, accurate/inaccurate, what is accepted as true or factual. For

example:

What is the major cause of accidental deaths among children inside the home?

The most effective weight loss plan includes exercise. TRUE-FALSE

The ideal refrigerator temperature is .

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2.BELIEF - what people think is true; an opinion.

Beliefs are judgments of what people think is true or false, what one thinks exists or does not

exist. Choices implied in belief questions include what did or did not happen. s may seek

perceptions of past, present or future reality. For example:

In your opinion, does positive self-esteem among adolescents prevent drug abuse?

Do you think that lower beef prices would increase beef consumption?

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3.ATTITUDE - how people feel about something; a preference.

Such questions ask people to indicate whether they have a positive or a negative feeling about a

subject, what they value. Words typically used in attitude questions include: prefer/not prefer;

desirable/undesirable; favor/oppose; should/should not; satisfactory/unsatisfactory. For example:

Do you favor or oppose controlled calving for your operation?

Do you agree or disagree that eating beef causes heart disease?

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4.BEHAVIOR - what people do Ñ may be a physical/manual or mental behavior.

s about behavior ask people what they have done in the past, what they are doing now, or

what they plan to do in the future. For example:

Have you ever attended an Extension program about cotton production?

Do you treat your cotton for bollworms?

How are you currently using the information gained in the food storage workshop?

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5.ATTRIBUTES - what people are; what people have.

Attributes are a person’s personal or demographic characteristics such as age, education,

occupation, income. s on attributes ask people about who they are rather than what they

do. For example:

Where do you currently live?

How many children do you have?

What percentage of your household income comes from off-farm employment?

To write meaningful questions, be clear about the intended uses and type of information desired.

If questions are vague, the questionnaire may elicit attitudes and beliefs when the intent is to

document actual behavior.

Likewise, questions related to each type of information present different writing problems.

s concerning attitudes tend to be more difficult to phrase, given the complexity underlying

most attitudes. Careful attention should be given to the wording of such questions. In contrast,

questions about knowledge, behaviors and attributes tend to be more direct.

The response or information you obtain is only as good as the question. To get the type of

information you want, you must ask the right question!

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There are many dimensions that could be studied through

questionnaire. The following is a SAMPLE  of these dimensions

more frequently studied for diagnostic purposes.

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General Organizational Health

The general well being of. an organisation could be measured

through naire. The organizational health is

indicated by a comprehensive index obtained through the

measurement of perceptions of employees of the organisation.

The comprehensive index deals with the health of the

organisation on all possible variables(psychological, organizational

political, behavioral, managerial, organizational etc.) that

affect the functioning of the organisation. These include the

feelings of security, need-fulfillment job satisfaction, scope for

self-actualization, extent of happiness with the organisation, distribution, working of groups, objectivity, favoritism,

distortion of communications, trust, leadership, team spirit,

tension in the organisation, conflicts,

prejudice, work-organisation, effectiveness of meetings,

convenience of working hours and work atmosphere etc.

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Organizational Culture

The commonly shared attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and

behaviour of employees in the organisation constitutes its

culture. Organisational climate variables are similar to

organisational health variables. Organisational culture is studied

normally in a descriptive way whereas organisational health is

studied in an evaluative way. Organisational health variables

indicate functional and dysfunctional aspects of the

organisational processes.

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Motivational Climate

Organisations could be diagnosed in terms of the prevailing

motives that characterize the organization’s function. Does

concern for excellence characterize its culture or control? or

relationships? or dependence? or expert power? or helping each

other? etc.

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Role Oriented Variables

There are many “Role” related variables that influence the

organization’s functioning. These include Role Efficacy, Role

Ambiguity, Role Overload, Role Erosion, Inter-role linkages

and the like. ------------------------------------------------------------------

HRD Climate

HRD climate questionnaire deal with the extent to which a

development oriented climate or learning climate exists in an

organisation. Openness, collaboration, trust, proaction,

authenticity, confrontation, risk-taking etc. are normally

characterized as facilitating development culture. Performance

appraisals, training, feedback, counseling, job rotation, group

meetings, career development plans etc. are considered as

instruments to facilitate change.

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Leadership and Supervisory Styles

The human resources management philosophy as believed and

practiced by the supervisory and managerial staff determines also

to a large extent the motivation and morale of people and

thereby influences the organisational functioning. The general

philosophy, beliefs, and behaviors can be measured through

questionnaires. The variables measured may include Theory X

Versus Theory Y Orientation; or task-centered and peoplecentered

supervision; or authoritarian versus participative

management; or benevolent, critical and developmental styles, etc.

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Job-Satisfaction, Work Motivation and

Work Commitment

With the decline of work ethic in some organizations, many

diagnostic efforts are being focused on studies on job-satisfaction,

work-motivation, job-involve)1ent and the like. The

variables measured give insights into the existing patterns as well

as sources giving rise to dysfunctional behaviors. naire

to measure elimination, work attitudes also fall in this category.

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Specific Variables

in addition to these general variables the disables to diagnostic

questionnaire may focus on specific variables depending on the

need of the organisation, for example, if communication is

perceived as an issue there could be questionnaire to deal with

all aspects of it. If team work is perceived as a problem there

could be questionnaire developed to deal with. Thus any

organisational process or human processes in organizational life

can be taken up for diagnosis depending upon the preliminary

investigations or need felt by the organisation.

In the subsequent section of this unit details are presented

about some of the questionnaire available. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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The advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

The advantages of questionnaires

1.   Practical

2.   Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way

3.   Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability

4.   The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package

5.   Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research

6.   When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change

7.   Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses The disadvantages of questionnaires

1.   Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.

2.   Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation

3.   Lacks validity

4.   There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being

5.   There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in

6.   The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation

7.   People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged

8.   There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to what is and is not important...therefore they may be missing something that is of importance @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

task force is a group of people who are temporarily assigned to work together to achieve a very specific and clearly defined objective. For example, a drug task force works independently of a police force to address issues relating to the manufacture, sale, and use of illegal drugs. Although the concept of a task force is military in origin, task forces today are often found beyond the boundaries of the military, appearing in the business world, law enforcement, and charitable organizations.

Several things set a task force aside from other working groups. The first is typically a sense of autonomy; a task force is commanded by someone high-ranking enough that he or she does not need to constantly consult superiors to make decisions. This makes a task force extremely mobile, flexible, and effective, allowing the members to use their abilities in very efficient ways. A task force also typically contains a broad cross-section of people, integrating an assortment of skills into a single unit.

In some instances the members of a task force may be taken from entirely within a service, business, or organization. For example, early Naval task forces used people from various units who could work together efficiently and effectively on a project. However, a task force isn't restricted to a single entity; it is also possible to see a joint task force, which integrates people from multiple organizations. Joint task forces are especially common in law enforcement; in the example of a drug task force above, the task force might include federal narcotics agents, local police, and representatives from agencies like the parks department or department of public health.

When a task force is formed, the goals of the task force are clearly spelled out, and the commander of the task force typically indicates the kind of staffing and funding which would be needed. When the desired goal is achieved, the task force is broken up again, with the members returning to their normal positions.

While most task forces focus on short-term goals like developing new technology or solving a specific problem, a task force can also take on more challenging long-term issues, like the proliferation of drugs, or smuggling. In some instances, these task forces ultimately evolve into regular units, reflecting the fact that their tasks will never truly be done, although they might make tremendous strides in the right direction. ===============================

Running An Effective Task Group: The Five C’s

Many social work students may ask themselves, “What is a task group? Why should I be concerned with what makes a task group run more effectively?” The majority of students have already participated in a task group, but may not have called it by name. Knowing the skills that contribute to being an effective task group leader will help ensure that your task group experience is a positive and productive one.

Task groups are groups of individuals brought together to accomplish a specific action or produce a product. If you have participated in an educational planning meeting, been a member of a committee, attended a treatment team meeting, been elected to student government, or joined a social movement group, you have already experienced a task group in action. For some, the experience may not have been a positive one, because running an effective task group takes many different skills. Many social work students will be in the position of leading task groups while they are in school or very shortly afterward. Developing an awareness of the ingredients that go into a successful task group, with satisfied members, is crucial.

Five areas that are frequently cited by the experts on task groups are the five C’s: Control, Conflict, Communication, Consensus, and Cohesion. The five C’s can make or break a task group experience.

Groups are dynamic and fluid, which often means that the five Cs will be interrelated and interconnected. All can influence member satisfaction and ultimately the level of success the group will have attaining its goals. Thinking about some of the pitfalls that task groups can experience, and some strategies that may help you avoid them, may help you prepare for your own task group experience.

Control

Have you ever experienced the leadership vacuum? A leader has been appointed, but the group feels like a ship with no one at the helm. No one clarifies the purpose of the group or establishes concrete goals that can be evaluated. There is no agenda and group discussions meander through many topics. Members feel they are wasting their time, because nothing is being accomplished. On the opposite extreme is the super controlling leader who makes the members feel as if they are working with a control freak. The leader imposes his/her own agenda and refuses any member input. The leader is insensitive to the members’ needs or inflexible about allowing extra time to process an important decision.

Social workers may feel uncomfortable about assuming a leadership role, but many groups need someone to carry out the leadership functions to fulfill their purpose. Leaders are often responsible for convening meetings, chairing discussions, and facilitating the processes of meeting goals. One strategy for leaders is to prepare for meetings by having a written agenda. Leaders should orient group members at the beginning and as new members join, so that all members understand who is in the group and what is the group’s purpose. Leaders should start meetings as close to on time as possible and end on time. Also, avoiding long meetings is usually a good idea; members may have a hard time remaining focused in meetings that are longer than two hours. Discussions should be refocused when members remain stuck on one point endlessly or drift on long tangents. Leaders should use social work skills such as asking open-ended questions, paraphrasing, and summarizing to help facilitate productive discussions. Someone should be appointed to keep minutes of meetings. Minutes should be reviewed before the next meeting to remind members and leaders what was accomplished and what still needs to be done. Setting some realistic goals that can be reached early on will help group members feel the group has a purpose. Involving group members as much as possible in establishing group rules and task assignments will send a message to members that their contributions are valued.

Conflict Many social workers have been part of a group where the whole meeting was spent arguing over every decision. The members end up feeling as if they are participating in World War III. Some people may get frustrated and drop out. But the conflict-free group can often be just as frustrating. Being part of a group where no one feels they can raise a differing point of view for fear of creating conflict, often forces members to go along with decisions they don’t agree with and will not support in the long run.

Group leaders should expect some level of conflict as part of a healthy group process and not see conflict as a sign of failure. Group members should be encouraged to give their input, while at the same time, the leader should help members anticipate that there may be differences of opinion. Leaders should not switch topics or end discussion whenever there is a sign of possible conflict, but should intervene when a conflictual discussion moves to a personal level or goes on for so long that it feels unproductive. Negotiation, mediation, and arbitration skills can help resolve conflicts in a productive manner. Leaders should avoid leaving the most conflictual items until the end of the agenda, because meetings should not end on a conflictual note.

Communication In any type of group, communication is very important, because miscommunication almost always leads to problems. In task groups, different communication styles can create a situation in which group members misinterpret messages and fail to have a true dialogue. This can be especially true in task groups made up of members from different professions or of community groups with many nonprofessionals. A doctor may use professional jargon which is meaningless to other group members who are involved in a discharge conference. A community organizer may arrive at a meeting to plan a voter registration drive in a Spanish-speaking neighborhood, unable to communicate anything because he or she doesn’t speak Spanish. And nothing is more painful than being in a group where no one will say anything. The silence is deafening.

Communicating ideas and having a dialogue among members is very important in reaching group goals. Leaders should encourage and model good communication behaviors, which include no talking over others, no interrupting, and the use of “I statements.” Leaders should intervene when members are potentially misinterpreting messages and ask for clarification from the member who has just spoken. Leaders need to be aware of nonverbal communication, such as eye rolling, frowning, and shaking heads. Jargon should be avoided if members have different backgrounds. Members who use language that is racist, sexist, or homophobic should be addressed either during the group or afterward in private about the negative consequences of using this type of communication. Leaders should try whenever possible to reframe different communication styles as a positive addition to the diversity of the group.

Cohesion Being a member of a group with no cohesion or no sense of belonging can be very disheartening. Members may have difficulty expending a lot of energy in a group where members have no sense of connectedness or common purpose. Some groups err in the opposite extreme, creating a group with an intense sense of connection which is closed to any new members or suggestions from outside the group. Sometimes, a few members within the larger group feel closer and cliques, claques, or fractions are created which contribute to negative feelings between group members or subgroups.

Cohesion is often linked to group member satisfaction. Leaders should strive for a sense of belonging among their members by involving members in group activities and encouraging interaction between members. When assigning tasks or delegating authority, leaders should try to include everyone, even if the task is very small, because members may feel more a part of a group where they are making contributions. The leader can also encourage and model the benefits of working cooperatively instead of competitively. Never forget the importance of frequently recognizing and praising members’ commitment and contributions to the group.

Consensus

Task groups are frequently in the position of having to choose between different options. This means that groups must decide, in advance preferably, how they will arrive at a final decision. One pattern that can develop occurs when a small group of members is in contact outside of the formal meeting and makes a decision. This agreement is then presented to the whole group as if the whole group has already agreed to its mini-consensus. Striving to achieve complete consensus, especially in larger groups, can be aggravating to members. When a social action group has been meeting weekly for three months and is still trying to come to complete agreement by all forty members on the purpose of the group, members may lose interest and drop out.

Strategies for leaders include reaching an agreement early on in the life of the group as to what consensus will be when a group is formed: a simple majority? over 75% of the members? or 100%? Deciding the procedure for coming to consensus is also crucial: hand raising, secret ballot, and voice votes are all possibilities to consider. These strategies will vary a great deal depending on group size. A five-person treatment team may work well with 100% consensus, while a social action group with 50 members may need another type of decision-making.

Group processes will vary depending on group objectives and group membership. Sometimes a group will need a controlling leader or be able to tolerate high amounts of conflict. Flexibility and some understanding of group processes/dynamics are very important in helping leaders meet the needs of diverse groups. Leading or being a member of a task group can be very challenging to social work students, so don’t be too hard on yourself if your first experience feels like less than a total success.

Remembering what it felt like to be a task group member will help you stay in touch with what your group members may be going through. Learning from any mistakes will help you to be more prepared for future task group experiences to come.

The advantages are that group work:

• Encourages high quality work

A group can take on a bigger task, process more information, achieve more professional results.

• Encourages autonomy

The work is less likely to be teacher led. The product will belong to the students.

• Encourages increased commitment

A group that is working effectively will encourage its members not to let the others down. • Encourages efficient use of time and resources

Groups working effectively learnt how to delegate and respect delegation. Technical and staffing resources are used for a group of students rather than individuals.

The problems with group work are:

• Assessment

Individual students felt that they had done the most and so deserved a higher mark, or that other students were gaining marks from their work and had not done as much or as high quality themselves.

• ‘Passengers’ Students were concerned that they had members of their group who were not making as much or any contribution to the group.

• Parity of opportunity

Inevitably if work is delegated, not all students will get a chance to do all tasks.

• Lack of shared expectations

Some group members may wish to aim for a very high standard of work, others may feel, that they simply need to complete the task(GWAMP, 2003).

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